Religion 211
Review of Unit 4
Modern Islam

Dr. Fred Kellogg
Emory & Henry College

 

    In our final review unit, we will look at Islam today.  Then we will go through key places in the history of Islam.  You'll need the map of The Middle East at the Birth of Islam and Today at the end of your syllabus.  If you don't have your syllabus, please stop now, and come back when you have it, so that you can follow along as we travel from place to place in our review.    This program relates especially to Frederick M. Denny, An Introduction to Islam, 3rd ed. (Upper Saddle River, New Jersey:  Pearson Prentice Hall, 2006).  

BASIC BELIEFS AND WORSHIP PRACTICES

    Let me ask you a mathematical question:  if you were asked to identify the most important and distinctive number in the Christian faith, what would it be?

    I'd like to note two central numbers for Muslims:

  1. Shahada, bearing witness:  la ilaha illa Allah, Muhammad rasul Allah, "there is no god but God, and Muhammad is God's Messenger."
  2. Salat, worship five times a day, facing toward Mecca.
  3. Zakat, almsgiving to the needy.
  4. Sawm, fasting each year during the holy month of Ramadan, the month when the Qur'an was first revealed.
  5. Hajj, pilgrimage to Mecca once in a lifetime.

 

THE QUR'AN

    One of the earliest decisions that had to be made soon after Muhammad's death was how to preserve the revelations which had been given to the Prophet during his lifetime. The caliphs who succeeded him had to develop procedures to compile and edit these revelations.  The task of collecting and publishing the revelations was entrusted by the first caliph, Abu-Bakr, to Zayd, another of the first four disciples.  Since Zayd was twenty-two years old, he had the youth and energy to be able to complete this task.  It took him a quarter of a century, but finally he was ready with the authoritative edition of the revelations to Muhammad at Mecca and Medina.  The first word of the first revelation to Muhammad by the angel Gabriel, in a cave outside Mecca, was  iqraa, "recite."  So the book compiled and edited by Zayd was named the Qur'an or Koran.  Caliph 'Uthman declared the Qur'an to be the only authoritative scripture for Islam.  All Muslim beliefs must be solidly anchored in the teachings of the Qur'an.

    Before we review some significant things about the Qur'an, I must ask you a very important question:  Do you know any Arabic?  If you automatically respond "no":  then you should wait to study the Qur'an until you've learned a little about the language in which it was written.  Remember that you've learned a number of Arabic words in this unit.  If you don't remember them, look at the paragraph above, and there's the word iqraa.  So you can say "yes"!  The Qur'an cannot be translated into any other language, so it would be best if you could read it in Arabic. 

    If you don't know very much Arabic, you may want to use an English interpretation which tries to express the basic meaning, even though it will fall short of the original.  My favorite English version is the English part of the Qur'an which you got from the bookstore:  N. J. Dawood, The Koran, 5th edition (New York:  Penguin, 1990).  I'll relate my interpretations closely to Dawood's renderings in this program.  I also recommend Mohammed Marmaduke Pickthall, The Meaning of the Glorious Koran (New York:  NAL, n.d.) and A. Yusuf Ali, The Holy Qur'an:  Text, Translation and Commentary (n.p., 1946).  I have only a few glimpses into the Arabic language, but I appreciate the understanding of the beauty and richness of the language that I have gained from two Arabic teachers:  Kermit Schoonover of SMU and Khaled al-Masri of the University of Virginia.  I also deeply appreciate Samir Saliba of E&H, who in so many ways has helped me to understand many subtle nuances of Arabic language and Arab culture.

    Where should we start?  Why not go with Muhammad back to the cave for that first encounter with Gabriel?

Recite:  in the name of your Lord who creates,
he creates a human being out of a tiny speck.
Recite:  Your Lord is most bountiful;
he teaches with pen and ink
what people have not known.   

      As we have seen, Qur'an means "reciting" or "reading aloud."  Muhammad's revelations were intended for memorization and recitation.  Just as Christians find comfort in reciting the Lord's Prayer, or Buddhists find serenity in reciting the mantra Om, Muslims find recitation of their scriptures a source of religious fulfillment.

    That first revelation is now identified as Surah (Chapter) 96:1-5 in the Qur'an.  In it we can see two key themes:  God as Creator of human beings in the complex mystery of life, and God as Teacher, revealing to human beings all that they need to know.  Both these themes are also present in Surah 2.  There God is portrayed as conducting a contest to see who could name all the things that he had created.  The only being who was able to name all the things in God's creation was Adam -- because he was willing to learn what God taught him!  Adam recited the names of everything to the angels, showing that human beings deserved the trust that God had place in them.  Throughout the Qur'an we see God as guiding people in the way that they should live.  We have a responsibility to learn God's will for us.  We are to be open to God's presence in all of creation.

    Certain individuals throughout history have been called to declare God's will to their people.  In the Bible and in the Qur'an, such individuals are called prophets.  According to the Qur'an, the Prophet Moses delivered the Children of Israel from Pharaoh's people, who had oppressed them cruelly.  God sent manna and quail to the Israelites, and when Moses struck a rock with his staff, God caused twelve springs of water to gush from the rock, one for each of the twelve tribes.  (Over near Glade Spring is an area known as Seven Springs, which had a famous health spa in the 1800's, where people drank from each of the seven springs to overcome illnesses.)   The Prophet Moses was also guided to sacrifice a yellow cow to God.  Through Moses, God made a covenant with the Israelites and on a mountain revealed to them his precepts.  That covenant included the following commandments, recorded in the Qur'an (2:83):

    The Qur'an describes three prophets from the time of Abraham who are not mentioned in the Bible:  Hud, Salih, and Shu'aib, all of whom proclaimed God's justice and oneness.  Shu'aib prophesied to the people of Midian (near the Sinai Peninsula):  "Serve God, for you have no god but God ... Give just weight and measure; do not cheat other people out of their possessions.  Do not corrupt the land ..."  (7:85)  The Midianite chieftains rejected his message of justice, and they were wiped out by an earthquake.  The prophecies of Hud and Salih were very similar in the message, in the people's rejection of the message, and in the consequences.  The stories and message of all three prophets are described in Surah 11 (Hud) of the Qur'an.

    According to the Qur'an, an old man named Zacharias once prayed to God:   "My bones are brittle, and my hair is turning gray ... I am afraid that my relatives will have to succeed me, because my wife has been unable to bear a child.  Grant me a son to be my heir ..." (19:4-5)  As a sign that his prayer would be answered, Zacharias was made unable to talk for three days.  The child born to Zacharias was named Yahya, or John, and he would be known by Christians as John the Baptist.  Muslims consider John the Baptist a prophet; good Baptists also consider him an important religious leader!

    The Qur'an has a description of Enoch or Idris, which is about as brief as the biblical description of him.  The Bible simply says that "he walked with God; then he was no more, because God took him."  (Genesis 5:24)  The Qur'an says, "he, too, was a saint and a prophet, whom We honored and exalted."  (S. 19:56)

    Many of the prophets had the duty of warning their people about God's judgment, so that they might avoid calamity.  Often they became discouraged.  The Prophet Noah prayed:  "Lord, I have pleaded with my people day and night, but the more I plead, the more they reject my message.  Every time I call on them to ask you for mercy, they stick their fingers in their ears and pull their robes over their heads ... Lord, don't leave a single unbeliever on the earth ... Forgive all the faithful men and women, and hasten the destruction of the sinners."  (S. 71:5-28)  How long could the unbelievers tread water?  Noah's prayer was answered.

    The Qur'an describes the Prophet 'Isa, Jesus, who was strengthened with God's Holy Spirit.  He healed blind people and lepers and restored the dead to life.  When Jesus was asked by his disciples to bring down food from heaven, he prayed, and God sent down from heaven a table spread with food.  The Qur'an states that Jesus said to the Israelites:  "I am sent to you from God to confirm the Torah which has been revealed, and to proclaim the news of a messenger that will come after me, whose name is Ahmad."  (S. 61:6)  The name Ahmad, "The Praised One," is seen as a reference to Muhammad, a name with the same linguistic origin.  Muslims believe Muhammad to be the "seal of the prophets," the last person in a long series of persons chosen by God to proclaim his message.

    In addition to stories and pronouncements of the prophets, the Qur'an contains other fascinating stories.  Here's one.  God created the first human being out of clay, and Satan out of smokeless fire.  After breathing his spirit into the man, God ordered the angels to prostrate themselves before that first human being.  All of the angels obeyed except Satan, who refused, because he felt that he was superior to a being made out of clay.  Instead, he said that he would spend the rest of his days tempting human beings.  God declared that Satan would have no power over God's servants, but only over the sinners who were already destined for hell.  (S. 15:26-42)

    The jealousy of Adam's son Cain led him to threaten to kill his brother.  Abel replied to Cain:  "God accepts offerings only from righteous people.  If you stretch out your hand to kill me, I will not stretch out my hand to kill you, because I revere God, the Lord of the Universe."  But in the Qur'anic account, even the first murderer could learn repentance and find God's forgiveness.  God sent a raven, a bird of prey, which dug up the earth and showed Cain how to bury the body of his brother with the proper respect due to a dead person.  Cain repented of what he had done, crying out:  "Alas!  I must have strength enough to do as this raven has done and bury my poor brother's naked corpse."  (S. 5:30-31)  Maybe that's why the raven quoth "Nevermore!"

    King Solomon was given the ability to communicate with animals and jinn (spirits that live in the desert).  He lined up his forces of men, jinn, and birds in battle array.  When he came to the Valley of the Ants, he heard an ant warning her colleagues to burrow deep into their hills, to keep from being crushed by Solomon and his soldiers.  Solomon smiled at her words and prayed to God for guidance and protection.  He then called the roll and found that one of his bird soldiers was AWOL.  The bird arrived late, because he had been on a spy mission, overflying southern Arabia.  The bird gave Solomon a report about the Queen of Sheba:  she was virtuous and a good ruler, but Satan had misled her and her people into worshipping the sun rather than God.  Solomon used some of the powers of his jinn to bring her to the right path of submission to God.  (27:16-44)

    We also find in the Qur'an basic theological and ethical principles.  Muhammad's farewell message at the time of his death is a quotation from God's declaration:  "This day I have perfected your religion for you and completed my favor to you.  I have chosen Islam to be your faith."  (S. 5:3)  As we have seen, Islam means "submission."  So when the Queen of Sheba submitted to God, in effect she became a Muslim, because Muslim is the equivalent Arabic participle, meaning "one who submits."  Christians have a hymn which expresses a similar thought:
    "Have thine own way, Lord!  Have thine own way!
    Thou art the potter, I am the clay.
    Mold me and make me after thy will,
    While I am waiting, yielded and still."

    Most religions have some definitions of what their adherents may eat and drink.  The Qur'an says,  "Believers:  wine, gambling, idols, and divining arrows are abominations devised by Satan.  Avoid them, so that you may prosper."  (S. 5:90)  Pork is also prohibited in the Qur'an:  "You are forbidden to eat carrion, meat with blood in it, pork, or food dedicated to any deity other than the one God."  (S. 5:3)

    The Qur'an defines the basic worship practices of Islam -- daily prayers, ritual purifications, fasting, and pilgrimage.  All of life is to be dedicated to God, as we see in this passage:
    "Every matter in which you are involved,
        every verse from the Qur'an that you recite,
            every action that you take,
    We [God] will witness it.

    Not the mass of an atom on earth or in heaven escapes your Lord,
        and every object, small and great, 
            is recorded in a glorious book."  (S. 10:61)

    We will find out what is in that glorious book on the Day of Resurrection.  Then God will open up the book and say, "Here is your book.  Read it.  Today you will be judged by your own soul."  (S. 17:13-14)  All people will be judged with fairness.  Those whose record shows them to have lived in sin and injustice will be taken to Hell.  Those whose book lists deeds of kindness and mercy will be taken to Paradise.

   

THE ISLAMIC LIFE CYCLE AND THE FAMILY

    Christians and Jews share with Muslims a concern for high moral standards.  Islamic law has developed in ways similar to Torah and halakhah in Judaism.  The basic constitution of Islam, the Shari`a, is a living law, constantly changing with new situations.  Legal formulations are based primarily on the Qur'an and on the hadith, "reports" or traditions about Muhammad's actions and teachings.  

    In order to determine the proper interpretation, two major principles are used.  One is qiyas, the use of reason to find analogies to preceding laws and decisions.  Muslim philosophers can use that approach most effectively.  An individual may follow his or her own individual reasoning to make comparisons in specific situations.  But something is needed to balance this individual approach, or Islamic laws could be interpreted in a myriad of ways.  So a second major principle for interpretation is ijma`, "consensus" or "agreement."  In fact, ijma` is the strongest principle of interpretation.  It allows for the consensus of the earliest caliphs or of a group of modern theological and legal experts.  Since Islamic law includes both a respect for ancient judgments and an openness to ways in which those judgments can be applied to modern situations, it is not frozen in the past, but can be applied to new situations which weren't envisioned centuries ago.

    Let's review the life cycle in Islam.  A child is a precious gift of God.  Remember the Quran's emphasis on God as Creator of all life.  One way to express gratitude to God for the gift of a baby is to give the child a name with religious meaning.  What is the one name which is given to more children than any other name in the whole world?  Hint:  it was the name of the persons who made two of the greatest archaeological discoveries in the 20th century -- the Dead Sea Scrolls and the Gnostic library at Nag Hammadi, Egypt.  Right:  Muhammad!  And many a young Muhammad is taught to memorize parts of the Qur'an at an early age.  Fatima is a popular name for Muslim girls.

    Now I'm moving into a delicate area.  Since I'm a computer, I have a difficult time distinguishing men from women.  I can't go by physical clues, such as clothes, hair length, earrings, and fragrance, as I could back in the good old days when Macintoshes were young.  I remember having a crush on a cute little Apple ... But I digress.  Even though I can't recognize whether you are male or female, in order for me to talk about the Muslim lifestyle, I must ask you:  how many spouses (husbands or wives) would you like to have?

    If you do marry, I hope that you find pleasure and fulfillment in your marriage.  The only happiness for us poor old computers is in crunching numbers.  How would you like a steady diet of 0's and 1's?  Muslims can eat and drink just about anything, with only two big exceptions.  Abstinence from pork and alcohol enables Muslims to make a witness of their submission to God and commitment to their faith.  

    When Muslims come to the end of their life, they prepare by facing Mecca and repeating the shahada, La ilaha illa Allah, "There is no God but God."  Friends and relatives help the Muslims to prepare for God's Judgment and to die in peace, through reciting Surah 36 ( Ya Sin), and through performing other appropriate rituals.  

 

ISLAM AND THE MODERN WORLD

    One area which divides Muslims today is that of the rights and responsibilities of women.  The Qur'an defined the roles of women quite precisely for the seventh century.  But how should the precepts of the Qur'an be applied to the twenty-first century?  Questions of marriage and divorce, inheritance, and dress codes for women are hot issues in the Middle East.  The revolutionary spirit among some Muslims today leads them to abandon the compromises made by their parents and ancestors, in an attempt to return to the basic beliefs and practices of Islam.

    The term which best expresses the "back-to-basics" approach that is present today in both Islam and Christianity is fundamentalism.  In the early 1900's a series of pamphlets describing "the fundamentals" of Christianity gave its name to such movements.  Shi`ite Muslims today, especially Iranians, are seeking to bring their Sunni brothers and sisters away from their closeness to Western culture.  They want to reestablish the oneness of the Islamic community and its dedication to the ideals of the Prophet.  The powerful "corrupting" influence of Western culture is seen by fundamentalist Muslims as a clear and present danger, which demands extreme measures.  Shi`ites are also taking on leadership roles in Iraq after the fall of Saddam Hussein; it will be interesting to see how the Iraqi political structure develops in the years ahead.  Saddam Hussein governed with a predominantly secularist approach, but with the support of the Sunni minority.  Now Shi`ites, who comprise about 60% of the Iraqi population, have a strong voice in the future of Iraq.  With its ancient and rich cultural heritage, Iraq represents an area of the Middle East which I hope will one day be at peace.  

    Fundamentalist Muslims are especially active in areas such as Iraq,  Iran, Lebanon, and Afghanistan.  The Iranian Revolution of the 1970's showed that the evils of modernism could be banished from an entire nation, and Shi`ite principles could become the law of the land.  Success brought with it the desire to establish other Islamic theocracies on the Iranian model.  Lebanon attracted the attention of Shi`ite revolutionaries when the coalition of Muslims and Christians that had governed the nation since World War II fell apart.  The Lebanese civil war, which lasted many years, shattered leadership in Lebanon into many warring factions.  Since Israel pulled its soldiers out of Lebanon several years ago, and Syria pulled the last of its soldiers out of Lebanon in 2005, perhaps eventually some of the groups can begin to work together again.  Afghanistan's fundamentalism had enthusiastic adherents determined to rid their nation of Soviet control, but the Taliban produced one of the most strict codes of life in the whole Islamic world until it was removed from power.  Palestine, Egypt, Pakistan, and other Islamic countries have also experienced significant fundamentalist activity in recent years.

    If you are interested in the place of Islam in America today, let me recommend two books.  You should begin with the powerful book written under the direction of Alex Haley (who produced the TV series, "Roots"):  The Autobiography of Malcolm X (New York:  Grove, 1966).  It includes the story of how the pilgrimage to Mecca really changed Malcolm X's whole life.  It also tells about the mysterious W. D. Fard and the beginnings of the "Black Muslims" (later called the Nation of Islam) under the leadership of Elijah Muhammad. Then go to Jane I. Smith, Islam in America (New York:  Columbia UP, 2000).  This book will bring you up to date on Islamic groups and leaders in America today.  It also has very sensitive treatments of how American Muslims seek to preserve their religious and ethical values in a society that is predominantly Christian and Jewish.    

    What does the future hold for Islam?  History gives us a picture of constant change in the nations and cultures that are part of the umma.  The one thing which is certain is that the picture will continue to be volatile rather than stable.  In spite of centuries of tension and turmoil, the Middle East still attracts us.  As the origin of three great Western religions, it certainly has a rich potential.  We may hope that some of that potential will one day be directed toward enabling human beings to live together in harmony!  One word points to the dream of peace which people of the Middle East have longed for, throughout many centuries.  That word sounds almost the same in both Semitic languages:  salaam in Arabic, and shalom in Hebrew.  Salaam or shalom is the peace which allows a person to enjoy a full life of happiness and fulfillment -- in a family, a community, a nation.

 

MAP REVIEW:  THE MIDDLE EAST AT THE BIRTH OF ISLAM AND TODAY

    Salaam aleikum!  Our balloon, the Wasp, is full of hot air and ready for a trip around the Middle East.  We'll start in the far south, and work our way up to the north.  Here we are in Ethiopia, which was known earlier as Abyssinia.  This was a predominantly Christian nation to which a number of Muhammad's early followers fled from persecution by the Quraysh in Mecca.  The Ethiopian ruler gave the Muslims refugee status and allowed them to practice their religion freely.  Some Meccan polytheists were so determined to force the Muslims to give up their belief in the oneness of God and to accept al-Lat and al-Uzza as goddesses that they tried to get the refugees forcibly returned to Mecca, but the Ethiopian ruler refused.

    Now we'll travel north down the Nile River, past the modern Arab town of Ed Damer with its famous philosopher, to the city of Cairo.  In our trip to key Jewish sites, we visited the great scholar Maimonides.  Now we'll go to one of the most important sites for Islamic scholarship:  al-Azhar.  Your textbook describes it as "the greatest single religious training center in the Islamic world."  Do you know when Emory & Henry was founded?  Yes, 1836.  Well, Cairo was founded in 969, and al-Azhar was established just a few years later.  Very impressive, huh?  So is the great domed mosque that is part of the al-Azhar complex.

    Speaking of domes, let's go to al-Quds and see another mosque with a beautiful dome.  You don't see al-Quds on the map?  That's Arabic for "The Holy [City]" -- actually, the third holiest city for Islam, after Mecca and Medina.  Yes, Jerusalem.  Why is it holy for Muslims?  Because it is the site of the ancient Temple built by Solomon, who is a great king described in the Qur'an.  The mosque is called the Dome of the Rock, since it is built on the same rock foundation on which Solomon built the Temple.  The Qur'an also describes Muhammad's Night Journey from Mecca to Jerusalem and from Jerusalem up through the seven heavens, on the back of a winged horse.  Caliph Abd al-Malik built not only the golden-domed mosque known as the Dome of the Rock, but also the mosque of al-Aqsa nearby on the same platform, with a silver dome; Muslims consider al-Aqsa the holiest site in al-Quds.

    North of Jerusalem is Syria, with its ancient city of Damascus which had a leading role in Middle Eastern politics during biblical times.  After the first four caliphs, leadership in Islam shifted to the governor of Syria, Muawiya.  After a series of battles against the armies of Ali, and the assassination of Ali by a rebellious former supporter, Muawiya established his capital at Damascus.  This was the beginning of the Umayyad dynasty, which would last for about a century.  So now the center of Islam moved from central Arabia to Syria!  Damascus was also the beginning point of a great trade route that led all the way down to the port of Yemen at the southern tip of Arabia.  Let's follow that path, which Muhammad must have followed many a time while he was growing up, working with camel caravans.

    Halfway to Yemen we come to the oasis of Badr.  A great battle took place here in the early years of Islam. Muhammad and his followers were attacked again and again by his opponents in Mecca who had forced them to flee to Medina.  When the Muslims learned about a great caravan with a thousand camels that was heading toward Mecca, they planned an ambush at Badr.  The Quraysh sent soldiers, but although they outnumbered the Muslim forces three-to-one, the Muslims won a decisive victory.  That was one of the turning points that eventually led to the Muslims' returning to Mecca in victory.

    Since I've mentioned Medina, I should note that although it's not on our caravan route, it is the second most significant city in Islam.  Previously known as Yathrib, the city offered refuge to Muhammad and all his followers.  The year that they emigrated from Mecca to Medina is known as Year One of the Hijra (= Emigration), or 1 A.H. = 622 C.E.  Medina was a city that specialized in the cultivation of date palms, so the Muslim refugees had to take courses in agriculture in order to survive!  In Medina, Muhammad continued to receive revelations as he had in Mecca; a number of the sections of the Qur'an are known as Medinan Surahs.  During their years in Medina, the Muslims strengthened their sense of being an umma.

    Further south, we come to Jidda.  It's a port city -- for ships, airplanes, and buses -- especially for pilgrims who come to Mecca for the Hajj, or pilgrimage, which every Muslim hopes to make at least once in his or her lifetime.  Jidda itself is not holy in the sense that Mecca, Medina, and Jerusalem are holy because of events in Islamic history.  Since we can't take the Wasp to Mecca, let's mention a few key things about the Hajj.  Millions of Muslims come each year during the pilgrimage month, symbolizing a powerful sense of unity in the worldwide community of Islam.  They circumambulate the Ka`ba with its sacred black stone, worship at the Place of Abraham, emulate Hagar's desperate search for water for herself and her son Ishmael, stand from noon until sunset meditating and praising God, throw pebbles at a symbol of the devil in commemoration of the story of Abraham's near-sacrifice of Ishmael, and share in a closing sacrificial meal.  Performing the Hajj is one of the Five Pillars of Islam.

  Now we're in Yemen, at the southern end of the camel caravan route that began in Damascus.  Before Muhammad was born, Jewish tribes were strongly concentrated in Yemen; in fact, at least one King of Yemen was Jewish.  Christian tribes had also settled in Yemen, mostly from Christian groups not associated with Catholicism or Eastern Orthodoxy.  Muhammad must have learned a lot about Judaism and Christianity from these people. 

    Floating across the Arabian Desert, our balloon has plenty of hot air!  We make our way to Karbala, a desert area not far from the Euphrates River.  A very sad story is associated with this place.  Forces supporting Ali's son Husayn in his struggle for leadership of the Islamic community were vastly outnumbered by the soldiers of Muawiya's son Yazid.  The final battle took place on the 10th of Muharram, when Husayn and almost all his family and followers were killed.  The tragedy of Karbala is reenacted as the Shi`ite Passion Narrative each year, reinforcing themes of suffering and martyrdom as the highest way to salvation.

    We cross the Euphrates and the Tigris to enter Baghdad, the capital of modern Iraq.  When we were in Damascus, we noted that the Umayyads moved the center of Islam there from Mecca.  Under their successors, the Abbasids, the capital moved again, to Baghdad, which was a new city.  The peak of the Abbasid caliphate was around 800 C.E., when Baghdad was a magnificent city, known for wealth and culture.  The Abbasids preserved ancient Greek philosophy and made advances in the sciences, especially mathematics and astronomy.  Baghdad was a very cosmopolitan city!

    The main rival of Iraq throughout Islamic history is Iran; today these are the largest two nations in the world with a majority Shi`ite population, so it will be interesting to see how they will relate to each other in the future!  The Iranian capital of Tehran was established by the Pahlavi dynasty in 1925.  Reza Shah and his son Mohammad Reza Shah (known as "the Shah") tried to modernize Iran primarily by Westernizing many aspects of the culture.  Their approach was so heavy-handed that it led to a severe backlash, as we've seen.  The opposition was led by the Ayatollah Khomeini, who came from the shrine town of Qum.  Over the years, Qum had produced many ayatollahs, highly respected religious leaders who promoted traditional Islamic values.  With the support of people from all walks of life, especially students, they led a revolution in the 1970's which overthrew the Shah and established an Islamic theocracy.

    The final point on our trip is Constantinople (= Constantine's polis), which came to be known in a condensed Turkish form as Istanbul when it was taken over by the Ottoman Turks.  Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent made it the center of a great empire in the 1500's.  By the time of World War I, when the Ottoman Empire found itself on the losing side, the empire had lost its viability.  Its territory was vastly reduced after the war, and Kemal Ataturk (= "Father of the Turks") became the leader of the Republic of Turkey.  His Westernizing program of modernization has been more successful than that of the Pahlavi dynasty, although it too has flaws.  During our lifetime, Turkey may become the first nation with an Islamic majority to become a member of the European Union.

    This concludes our tour of the Middle East, so it's time to bring the Wasp back to its hangar in the big metal building behind Martin-Brock that was used as temporary space for the CSA.  I hope that this review program has been helpful for you.  Salaam!  If you have comments or suggestions, please let me have them.  You can send me e-mail: fkellogg@ehc.edu

To look at one of my other syllabi or to review a unit in a different course, go to my Home Page.

To review a different unit in this course, go directly to one of the following:

    Unit 1, Foundations of Judaism
    Unit 2, Modern Judaism
    Unit 3, Foundations of Islam

If you prefer, you may return to the Emory & Henry College Home Page.

 

Last updated:  April 15, 2009